Human contributions
From professional translators, enterprises, web pages and freely available translation repositories.
Add a translation
Tagalog
Tagalog
2 corinthians 9: 6-7
Last Update: 2017-04-14
Usage Frequency: 1
Quality:
Reference:
Usage Frequency: 1
Quality:
Reference:
Tagalog
Halimbawa ng ekonomiya sa bahay 6 7 tagalog
Last Update: 2018-06-04
Usage Frequency: 5
Quality:
Reference:
Usage Frequency: 5
Quality:
Reference:
English
Greenpeace is a non-governmental[3] environmental organization with offices in over forty countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam, the Netherlands.[4] Greenpeace states its goal is to 'ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity'[5] and focuses its campaigning on world wide issues such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling, genetic engineering, and anti-nuclear issues. It uses direct action, lobbying, and research to achieve its goals. The global organization does not accept funding from governments, corporations, or political parties, relying on 2.9 million individual supporters and foundation grants.[6][7] Greenpeace has a general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council[8] and is a founding member[9] of the INGO Accountability Charter; an international non-governmental organization that intends to foster accountability and transparency of non-governmental organizations.
Last Update: 2015-02-03
Usage Frequency: 1
Quality:
Reference:
Warning: Contains invisible HTML formatting
Usage Frequency: 1
Quality:
Reference:
Warning: Contains invisible HTML formatting
2 Corinthian 1:4-7 Tagalog Dictionary
(Redirected from Siracuse)
Sarausa(Sicilian) | |
---|---|
Comune di Siracusa | |
Ortygia island, where Syracuse was founded in ancient Greek times. Mount Etna is visible in the distance. | |
Location of Syracuse in Italy Syracuse (Sicily) | |
Coordinates: 37°04′09″N15°17′15″E / 37.06917°N 15.28750°ECoordinates: 37°04′09″N15°17′15″E / 37.06917°N 15.28750°E | |
Country | Italy |
Region | Sicily |
Province | Syracuse (SR) |
Government | |
• Mayor | Francesco Italia |
Area | |
• Total | 207.78 km2 (80.22 sq mi) |
Elevation | 17 m (56 ft) |
Population (2018-01-01)[3] | |
• Total | 121,605 |
• Density | 590/km2 (1,500/sq mi) |
Demonym(s) | Syracusan,[4] Syracusian[5](en) Siracusano (it) |
Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) |
Postal code | |
Dialing code | 0931 |
Patron saint | Saint Lucy |
Saint day | 13 December |
Website | comune.siracusa.it |
Syracuse (/ˈsɪrəkjuːs, -kjuːz/; Italian: Siracusa[siraˈkuːza](listen); Sicilian: Sarausa[saɾaˈuːsa]; Latin: Syrācūsae; Ancient Greek: Συράκουσαι, romanized: Syrákousai;[7]Medieval Greek: Συρακοῦσαι, romanized: Syrakoûsai) is a historic city on the island of Sicily, the capital of the Italian province of Syracuse. The city is notable for its rich Greek history, culture, amphitheatres, architecture, and as the birthplace of the preeminent mathematician and engineerArchimedes.[8] This 2,700-year-old city played a key role in ancient times, when it was one of the major powers of the Mediterranean world. Syracuse is located in the southeast corner of the island of Sicily, next to the Gulf of Syracuse beside the Ionian Sea.
The city was founded by Ancient GreekCorinthians and Teneans[9] and became a very powerful city-state. Syracuse was allied with Sparta and Corinth and exerted influence over the entirety of Magna Graecia, of which it was the most important city. Described by Cicero as 'the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all',[10] it equaled Athens in size during the fifth century BC.[11] It later became part of the Roman Republic and the Byzantine Empire. Under Emperor Constans II, it served as the capital of the Byzantine Empire (663–669). After this Palermo overtook it in importance, as the capital of the Kingdom of Sicily. Eventually the kingdom would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860.
In the modern day, the city is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the Necropolis of Pantalica. In the central area, the city itself has a population of around 125,000 people. Syracuse is mentioned in the Bible in the Acts of the Apostles book at 28:12 as Paul stayed there.[12] The patron saint of the city is Saint Lucy; she was born in Syracuse and her feast day, Saint Lucy's Day, is celebrated on 13 December.
- 1History of Syracuse
- 2Geography
- 5Tourism
History of Syracuse[edit]
Greek period[edit]
A Syracusan tetradrachm (c. 415–405 BC), sporting Arethusa and a quadriga.
Decadrachme from Sicile struck at Syracuse and sign d'Évainète
A Tetradrachm from Syracuse, circa 485–479 BC, with Arethusa on the obverse, and a slow quadriga driven by a male charioteer on the reverse.
The siege of Syracuse in a 17th-century engraving.
Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio, Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, which already had a relationship with Mycenaean Greece.
Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC by Greek settlers from Corinth and Tenea, led by the oecist (colonizer) Archias. There are many attested variants of the name of the city including ΣυράκουσαιSyrakousai, ΣυράκοσαιSyrakosai and ΣυρακώSyrakō.[7] A possible origin of the city's name was given by Vibius Sequester citing[13] first Stephanus Byzantius[7][14] in that there was a Syracusian marsh (λίμνη) called Syrako and secondly Marcian'sPeriegesis wherein Archias gave the city the name of a nearby marsh; hence one gets Syrako (and thereby Syrakousai and other variants) for the name of Syracuse, a name also attested by Epicharmus.[7][15] The settlement of Syracuse was a planned event, as a strong central leader, Arkhias the aristocrat, laid out how property would be divided up for the settlers, as well as plans for how the streets of the settlement should be arranged, and how wide they should be.[16] The nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia. The settlers found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most powerful Greek city anywhere in the Mediterranean. Colonies were founded at Akrai (664 BC), Kasmenai (643 BC), Akrillai (7th century BC), Helorus (7th century BC) and Kamarina (598 BC).
The descendants of the first colonists, called Gamoroi, held power until they were expelled by the Killichiroi, the lower class of the city. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of Gelo, ruler of Gela. Gelo himself became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and Megara to Syracuse, building the new quarters of Tyche and Neapolis outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new theatre, designed by Damocopos, which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn attracted personalities as Aeschylus, Ario of Methymna and Eumelos of Corinth. The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the Carthaginians, who ruled western Sicily. In the Battle of Himera, Gelo, who had allied with Theron of Agrigento, decisively defeated the African force led by Hamilcar. A temple dedicated to Athena (on the site of today's Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate the event.
Syracuse grew considerably during this time. Its walls encircled 120 hectares (300 acres) in the fifth century, but as early as the 470's BC the inhabitants started building outside the walls. The complete population of its territory approximately numbered 250,000 in 415 BC and the population size of the city itself was probably similar to Athens.[11]
Gelo was succeeded by his brother Hiero, who fought against the Etruscans at Cumae in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like Simonides of Ceos, Bacchylides and Pindar, who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by Thrasybulos (467 BC).[17] The city continued to expand in Sicily, fighting against the rebellious Siculi, and on the Tyrrhenian Sea, making expeditions up to Corsica and Elba. In the late 5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with Athens, which sought more resources to fight the Peloponnesian War. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from Sparta, Athens' foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to starve on the island (see Sicilian Expedition). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 300 hoplites and a general to Cyrus the Younger's Army of the Ten Thousand.[18]
Then in the early 4th century BC, the tyrantDionysius the Elder was again at war against Carthage and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on Ortygia and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period of expansion saw the destruction of Naxos, Catania and Lentini; then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of Adranon, Tyndarion and Tauromenos, and conquering Rhegion on the continent. In the Adriatic, to facilitate trade, Dionysius the Elder founded Ancona, Adria and Issa. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was famous as a patron of art, and Plato himself visited Syracuse several times.
His successor was Dionysius the Younger, who was however expelled by Dion in 356 BC. But the latter's despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion, and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. Dionysius was besieged in Syracuse by the Syracusan general Hicetas in 344 BC. The following year the Corinthian Timoleon installed a democratic regime in the city after he exiled Dionysius and defeated Hicetas. The long series of internal struggles had weakened Syracuse's power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the Carthaginians in the Battle of the Crimissus (339 BC).
After Timoleon's death the struggle among the city's parties restarted and ended with the rise of another tyrant, Agathocles, who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage, with alternate fortunes. He was besieged in Syracuse by the Carthaginians in 311 BC, but he escaped from the city with a small fleet. He scored a moral success, bringing the war to the Carthaginians' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy. The defenders of Syracuse destroyed the Carthaginian army which besieged them. However, Agathocles was eventually defeated in Africa as well. The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the Carthaginians from interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of Agathocles (289 BC). They laid siege to Syracuse for the fourth and last time in 278 BC. They retreated at the arrival of king Pyrrhus of Epirus, whom Syracuse had asked for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus, Hiero II seized power in 275 BC.
Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which Syracuse became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the so-called Lex Hieronica, which was later adopted by the Romans for their administration of Sicily; he also had the theatre enlarged and a new immense altar, the 'Hiero's Ara', built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the mathematician and natural philosopherArchimedes. Among his many inventions were various military engines including the claw of Archimedes, later used to resist the Roman siege of 214 BC–212 BC. Literary figures included Theocritus and others.
Hiero's successor, the young Hieronymus (ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after their defeat at the Battle of Cannae and accepted Carthage's support. The Romans, led by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus, besieged the city in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in 212 BC. The successes of the Syracusians in repelling the Roman siege had made them overconfident. In 212 BC, the Romans received information that the city's inhabitants were to participate in the annual festival to their goddess Artemis. A small party of Roman soldiers approached the city under the cover of night and managed to scale the walls to get into the outer city and with reinforcements soon took control, killing Archimedes in the process, but the main fortress remained firm. After an eight-month siege and with parleys in progress, an Iberian captain named Moeriscus is believed to have let the Romans in near the Fountains of Arethusa. On the agreed signal, during a diversionary attack, he opened the gate. After setting guards on the houses of the pro-Roman faction, Marcellus gave Syracuse to plunder.
Imperial Roman and Byzantine period[edit]
The Roman amphitheatre
The Temple of Apollo
Piazza Duomo
The Cathedral
Though declining slowly through the years, Syracuse maintained the status of capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the praetor. It remained an important port for trade between the Eastern and the Western parts of the Empire. Christianity spread in the city through the efforts of Paul of Tarsus and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it one of the main centres of proselytism in the West. In the age of Christian persecutions massive catacombs were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome.
After a period of Vandal rule, 469–477, Syracuse and the island was recovered for Roman rule under Odoacer, 476–491 and Theodoric the Great, 491–526, by Belisarius for the Byzantine Empire (31 December 535).[19] From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of Emperor Constans II, as well as a capital of the Roman Empire and metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church.
Emirate of Sicily[edit]
The city was besieged by the Aghlabids for almost a year in 827–828, but Byzantine reinforcements prevented its fall. It remained the center of Byzantine resistance to the gradual Muslim conquest of Sicily until it fell to the Aghlabids after another siege on 20/21 May 878. During the two centuries of Muslim rule, the capital of the Emirate of Sicily was moved from Syracuse to Palermo. The Cathedral was converted into a mosque and the quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including Ibn Hamdis, the most important Sicilian Arab poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city.
In 1038, the Byzantine general George Maniakes reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to Constantinople. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name, although it was built under the Hohenstaufen rule. In 1085 the Normans entered Syracuse, one of the last Arab strongholds, after a summer-long siege by Roger I of Sicily and his son Jordan of Hauteville, who was given the city as count. New quarters were built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches.
High medieval period[edit]
In 1194, Emperor Henry VI occupied the Sicilian kingdom, including Syracuse. After a short period of Genoese rule (1205–1220) under the notorious admiral and pirate Alamanno da Costa, which favoured a rise of trades, royal authority was re-asserted in the city by Frederick II. He began the construction of the Castello Maniace, the Bishops' Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick's death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the War of the Sicilian Vespers between the Angevin and Aragonese dynasties for control of Sicily, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and expelled the Angevins in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward. The preeminence of baronial families is also shown by the construction of the palaces of Abela, Chiaramonte, Nava, Montalto.
16th–20th centuries[edit]
The city was struck by two ruinous earthquakes in 1542 and 1693, and a plague in 1729. The 17th century destruction changed the appearance of Syracuse forever, as well as the entire Val di Noto, whose cities were rebuilt along the typical lines of Sicilian Baroque, considered one of the most typical expressions of art of Southern Italy. The spread of cholera in 1837 led to a revolt against the Bourbon government. The punishment was the move of the province capital seat to Noto, but the unrest had not been totally choked, as the Siracusani took part in the Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848.
Wishing everybody a very happy Shivaratri ❤️ lots of love to all, May all your dreams come true?? -Follow @haraflow-haraflow.com-Spread the vape love - Tag us #haraflow.................#haraflow #hara #harafitted #hemp #cbdoil #products #Cannabidiol #premium #vapepen #Love #train #empower #vitality #balance #health #cbd #oils #thc #quality #organic #spreadthelove #natural #terpenes #hempplant #essentialoils #joy #flow. Hara hara mahadeva telugu download. Thank you for the immense love you have showered on me all these years, #gratitude ❤️ thank u lord shiva for this lovely life, couldn’t have asked for more ❤️ shambooo shiv shamboo!
After the Unification of Italy of 1865, Syracuse regained its status of provincial capital. In 1870 the walls were demolished and a bridge connecting the mainland to Ortygia island was built. In the following year a railway link was constructed.
Modern history[edit]
Heavy destruction was caused during World War II by both the Allied and German bombings in 1943. Operation Husky, the codename for the Allied invasion of Sicily, was launched on the night between 9–10 July 1943 with British forces attacking the southeast of the island. The plan was for the British 5th Infantry Division, part of GeneralSir Bernard Montgomery's Eighth Army to capture Syracuse on the first day of the invasion. This part of the operation went completely according to plan, and British forces captured Syracuse on the first night of the operation.[20] The port was then used as a base for the British Royal Navy.[21] To the west of the city is a Commonwealth War Graves cemetery where about 1,000 men are buried. After the end of the war the northern quarters of Syracuse experienced a heavy, often chaotic, expansion, favoured by the quick process of industrialization.
Syracuse today has about 125,000 inhabitants and numerous attractions for the visitor interested in historical sites (such as the Ear of Dionysius). A process of recovering and restoring the historical centre has been ongoing since the 1990s. Nearby places of note include Catania, Noto, Modica and Ragusa.
Geography[edit]
Climate[edit]
Syracuse experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classificationCsa) with mild, wet winters and warm to hot, dry summers. Snow is infrequent but not rare at all; the last heavy snowfall in the city occurred in December 2014[22] but frosts are very rare, the last one happening in December 2014 with 0 °C.
Climate data for Syracuse | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 18.6 (65.5) | 19.6 (67.3) | 21.6 (70.9) | 24.4 (75.9) | 28.9 (84.0) | 34.0 (93.2) | 36.5 (97.7) | 35.8 (96.4) | 32.7 (90.9) | 28.7 (83.7) | 24.1 (75.4) | 20.0 (68.0) | 36.5 (97.7) |
Average high °C (°F) | 14.8 (58.6) | 15.3 (59.5) | 17.1 (62.8) | 19.7 (67.5) | 23.7 (74.7) | 28.2 (82.8) | 31.3 (88.3) | 31.2 (88.2) | 28.1 (82.6) | 24.0 (75.2) | 19.6 (67.3) | 16.3 (61.3) | 22.4 (72.3) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.1 (52.0) | 11.4 (52.5) | 12.9 (55.2) | 15.2 (59.4) | 18.8 (65.8) | 23.0 (73.4) | 26.0 (78.8) | 26.2 (79.2) | 23.7 (74.7) | 20.0 (68.0) | 15.8 (60.4) | 12.6 (54.7) | 18.1 (64.6) |
Average low °C (°F) | 7.3 (45.1) | 7.5 (45.5) | 8.7 (47.7) | 10.7 (51.3) | 13.9 (57.0) | 17.8 (64.0) | 20.7 (69.3) | 21.2 (70.2) | 19.2 (66.6) | 16.0 (60.8) | 12.1 (53.8) | 9.0 (48.2) | 13.7 (56.7) |
Record low °C (°F) | 3.0 (37.4) | 3.1 (37.6) | 4.3 (39.7) | 6.6 (43.9) | 9.7 (49.5) | 13.8 (56.8) | 17.0 (62.6) | 17.9 (64.2) | 15.3 (59.5) | 11.0 (51.8) | 7.1 (44.8) | 0.0 (32.0) | 0.0 (32.0) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 75 (3.0) | 52 (2.0) | 44 (1.7) | 30 (1.2) | 16 (0.6) | 5 (0.2) | 3 (0.1) | 7 (0.3) | 44 (1.7) | 78 (3.1) | 94 (3.7) | 78 (3.1) | 526 (20.7) |
Average precipitation days | 9 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 60 |
Average ultraviolet index | 2 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 9 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 6 |
Source: Archivio climatico Enea-Casaccia[23] and Weather Atlas[24] |
Government[edit]
Demographics[edit]
In 2016, there were 122,051[6] people residing in Syracuse, located in the province of Syracuse, Sicily, of whom 48.7% were male and 51.3% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 18.87 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 16.87 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Syracuse resident is 40 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Syracuse declined by 0.49 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent. The reason for decline is a population flight to the suburbs, and northern Italy.[25][26] The current birth rate of Syracuse is 9.75 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.
As of 2006, 97.9% of the population was of Italian descent. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations (particularly those from Poland, and the United Kingdom): 0.61%, North Africa (mostly Tunisian): 0.51%, and South Asia: 0.37%.
Tourism[edit]
UNESCO World Heritage Site | |
---|---|
Criteria | Cultural: ii, iii, iv, vi |
Reference | 1200 |
Inscription | 2005 (29th Session) |
Area | 898.46 ha |
Buffer zone | 5,519.4 ha |
Since 2005, the entire city of Syracuse, along with the Necropolis of Pantalica which falls within the province of Syracuse, were listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. This programme aims to catalogue, name and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity. The deciding committee which evaluates potential candidates described their reasons for choosing Syracuse because 'monuments and archeological sites situated in Syracuse are the finest example of outstanding architectural creation spanning several cultural aspects; Greek, Roman and Baroque', following on that Ancient Syracuse was 'directly linked to events, ideas and literary works of outstanding universal significance'.[27]
Buildings of the Greek period[edit]
- The Temple of Apollo, at Piazza Emanuele Pancali, adapted to a church in Byzantine times and to a mosque under Arab rule.
- The Fountain of Arethusa, on the Ortygia island. According to a legend, the nymphArethusa, hunted by Alpheus, took shelter here.
- The Greek Theatre, whose cavea is one of the largest ever built by the ancient Greeks: it has 67 rows, divided into nine sections with eight aisles. Only traces of the scene and the orchestra remain. The edifice (still used today) was modified by the Romans, who adapted it to their different style of spectacles, including also circus games. Near the theatre are the latomìe, stone quarries, also used as prisons in ancient times. The most famous latomìa is the Orecchio di Dionisio ('Ear of Dionysius').
- The Roman amphitheatre. It was partly carved out from the rock. In the centre of the area is a rectangular space which was used for the scenic machinery.
- The Tomb of Archimede, in the Grotticelli Nechropolis. Decorated with two Doric columns.
- The Temple of Olympian Zeus, about 3 kilometres (2 miles) outside the city, built around 6th century BC.
Buildings of the Christian period[edit]
Santa Lucia Alla Badia in the Piazza Duomo
- The Cathedral of Syracuse (Italian: Duomo) was built by bishop Zosimo in the 7th century over the great Temple of Athena (5th century BC), on Ortygia island. This was a Doric edifice with six columns on the short sides and 14 on the long sides: these can still be seen incorporated in the walls of the current church. The base of the temple had three steps. The interior of the church has a nave and two aisles. The roof of the nave is from Norman times, as well as the mosaics in the apses. The façade was rebuilt by Andrea Palma in 1725–1753, with a double order of Corinthian columns, and statues by Ignazio Marabitti. The most interesting pieces of the interior are a font with marble basin (12th–13th century), a silver statue of St. Lucy by Pietro Rizzo (1599), a ciborium by Luigi Vanvitelli, and a statue of the Madonna della Neve ('Madonna of the Snow', 1512) by Antonello Gagini.
- Basilica of Santa Lucia Extra moenia, a Byzantine church built (after Norman rebuilt), according to tradition, in the same place of the martyrdom of the saint in 303 AD. The current appearance is from the 15th–16th centuries. The most ancient parts still preserved include the portal, the three half-circular apses and the first two orders of the belfry. Under the church are the Catacombs of St. Lucy. For this church Caravaggio painted the Burial of St. Lucy, now housed in the Church of Santa Lucìa alla Badìa.
- Our Lady of Tears Shrine (20th century).
- Church of San Filippo Apostolo with downstair his Jewish Mikvah (18th century).
- Church of San Paolo (18th century).
- Church of San Cristoforo (14th century, rebuilt in the 18th century).
- Church of Santa Lucìa alla Badìa, a Baroque edifice built after the 1693 earthquake. It houses the Burial of St. Lucy by Caravaggio
- Church of San Giovanni Battista (14th century).
- Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (14th century).
- Church of the Spirito Santo (18th century).
- Church of the Jesuit College, a majestic, Baroque building.
- Church of St. Benedict (16th century, restored after 1693). It houses a painting of the Death of Saint Benedict by the CaravaggistiMario Minniti.
- Chiesa della Concezione (14th century, rebuilt in the 18th century), with the annexed Benedictine convent.
- Church of San Francesco all'Immacolata, with a convex façade intermingled by columns and pilaster strips. It housed and ancient celebration, the Svelata ('Revelation'), in which an image of the Madonna was unveiled at dawn of 29 November.
- Basilica of St. John the Evangelist, built by the Normans and destroyed in 1693. Only partially restored, it was erected over an ancient crypt of the martyr San Marciano, later destroyed by the Arabs. The main altar is Byzantine. It includes the Catacombs of San Giovanni, featuring a maze of tunnels and passages, with thousands of tombs and several frescoes.
Other notable buildings[edit]
The Maniace Castle
Detail of Palazzo Beneventano Del Bosco
Detail of the Fountain of Diana
- Castello Maniace, constructed between 1232 and 1240, is an example of the military architecture of Frederick II's reign. It is a square structure with circular towers at each of the four corners. The most striking feature is the pointed portal, decorated with polychrome marbles.
- The important Archaeological Museum, with collections including findings from the mid-Bronze Age to 5th century BC.
- Palazzo Lanza Buccheri (16th century).
- Palazzo Bellomo (12th century), which contains an art museum that houses Antonello da Messina's Annunciation (1474).
- Palazzo Montalto (14th century), which conserves the old façade from the 14th century, with a pointed portal.
- The Archbishop's Palace (17th century, modified in the following century). It houses the Alagonian Library, founded in the late 18th century.
- The Palazzo Vermexio, the current Town Hall, which includes fragments of an Ionic temple of the 5th century BC.
- Palazzo Francica Nava, with parts of the original 16th century building surviving.
- Palazzo Beneventano del Bosco, originally built in the Middle Ages but extensively modified between 1779 and 1788. It has a pleasant internal court.
- Palazzo Migliaccio (15th century), with notable lava inlay decorations.
- The Senate Palace, housing in the court an 18th-century coach.
- The Castle of Euryalos, built 9 kilometres (6 miles) outside the city by Dionysius the Elder and which was one of the most powerful fortresses of ancient times. It had three moats with a series of underground galleries which allowed the defenders to remove the materials the attackers could use to fill them.
- The Mikveh: a bath used for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism, built during the Byzantine era. It is situated in the Giudecca: the ancient Jewish Ghetto of Syracuse.
Famous people[edit]
- Archimedes, classical Greek mathematician, physicist and engineer
- Saint Lucy, Roman martyr
- Vincenzo Mirabella, humanist and pioneer of archaeology
See also[edit]
- Malèna – a 2000 romantic comedy-drama film starring Monica Bellucci and Giuseppe Sulfaro was mostly produced in Syracuse
References[edit]
- ^'Superficie di Comuni Province e Regioni italiane al 9 ottobre 2011'. Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
- ^‘City’ population (i.e. that of the comune or municipality) from demographic balance: January–April 2009[dead link], ISTAT.
- ^'Popolazione Residente al 1° Gennaio 2018'. Istat. Retrieved 16 March 2019.
- ^'Syracusan, adj. and n.', Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1919
- ^'† Syracusian, adj. and n.', Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1919
- ^ ab'Statistiche demografiche ISTAT'. demo.istat.it.
- ^ abcdΣυράκουσαι. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
- ^'BBC – History – Archimedes'.
- ^Strabo (1927). Jones, H. L. (ed.). Geography. 4. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 8.6.22. ISBN978-0-674-99201-6.
- ^Marcus Tullius Cicero (1903). 'Against Verres'. In Yonge, C. D. (ed.). The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero. London: George Bell & Sons. 2.4.52.
- ^ abMorris, Ian (2008). 'The Greater Athenian State'. In Morris, Ian; Scheidel, Walter (eds.). The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 115. ISBN978-0-19-970761-4.
- ^'Acts Facts: Syracuse'. SimplyBible.com. 8 January 2008.
- ^Vibius Sequester. 'Tyraca'. De Fluminibus Fontibus Lacubus Nemoribus Paludibus Montibus Gentibus quorum apud poeta mentio fit. apud Amandum König. p. 287.
- ^Ethnika 592.18–21,593.1–8, i.e. Stephanus Byzantinus' Ethnika (kat'epitomen), lemma ΣυράκουσαιMeineke, Augustus, ed. (1849). Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorvm quae svpersvnt. Prior. Impensis G. Reimeri. pp. 592–593.
- ^Epicharmi Fragmenta. apud Vincentium Loosjes. p. 111.
- ^Neer, Richard (2012). Greek Art and Archaeology. New York, New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 96. ISBN978-0-500-28877-1.
- ^Aristotle's Politics 5.1312b
- ^Xenophon. Anabasis, book 1, chapter 2, IX
- ^. J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, 1958 Edition, pp. Vol I, 254, 327, 410; Vol II p. 171
- ^Bitter Victory: The Battle for Sicily, 1943 by Carlo D'Este, pg. 148
- ^'Operation Husky, Sicily 1943'. olive-drab.com. 12 April 2008.
- ^Peppe Caridi (31 December 2014). 'Storica nevicata a Siracusa: città imbiancata con 0°C, non era mai successo prima [FOTO e VIDEO]'. MeteoWeb.
- ^'Profilo climatico dell'Italia: Siracusa' (in Italian). Ente per la Nuove tecnologie, l'Energia e l'Ambiente. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
- ^d.o.o, Yu Media Group. 'Syracuse, Italy - Detailed climate information and monthly weather forecast'. Weather Atlas. Retrieved 27 June 2019.
- ^'Statistiche demografiche ISTAT'. Demo.istat.it. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
- ^'Statistiche demografiche ISTAT'. Demo.istat.it. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
- ^'Syracuse and the Rocky Necropolis of Pantalica'. UNESCO. 8 January 2008.
Further reading[edit]
- Dummett, Jeremy (2015). Syracuse City of Legends: A Glory of Sicily(Paperback). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN978-1-78453-306-9.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Siracusa. |
- Syracuse (Italy) travel guide from Wikivoyage
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Syracuse,_Sicily&oldid=903740158'
1 Corinthians Introduction
What does spiritual freedom mean to a new Christian? When everyone around you is caught up in immorality, and you're bombarded with constant temptation, how do you stand for righteousness?
The fledgling church in Corinth was floundering with these questions. As young believers they struggled to sort out their newfound faith while living in a city overtaken with corruption and idolatry.
The Apostle Paul had planted the church in Corinth. Now, just a few years later, he was receiving questioning letters and reports of problems. The church was troubled with division, lawsuits between believers, sexual sins, disorderly worship, and spiritual immaturity.
Paul wrote this uncompromising letter to correct these Christians, answer their questions, and instruct them in several areas. He warned them not to be conformed to the world, but rather, to live as godly examples, reflecting godliness in the midst of an immoral society.
Who Wrote 1 Corinthians?
1 Corinthians is one of 13 Epistles written by Paul.
Date Written
Between 53-55 A.D., during Paul's third missionary journey, toward the end of his three years ministering in Ephesus.
Written To
Paul wrote to the church he had established in Corinth. He addressed the Corinthian believers specifically, but the letter is relevant to all followers of Christ.
Landscape of 1 Corinthians
The young Corinthian church was located in a large, decadent seaport--a city deeply immersed in pagan idolatry and immorality. The believers were primarily Gentiles converted by Paul on his second missionary journey. In Paul's absence the church had fallen into serious problems of disunity, sexual immorality, confusion over church discipline, and other matters involving worship and holy living.
Themes in 1 Corinthians
The book of 1 Corinthians is highly applicable for Christians today. Several important themes emerge:
Unity Among Believers - The church was divided over leadership. Some followed the teachings of Paul, others favored Cephas, and some preferred Apollos. Intellectual pride was firmly at the center of this spirit of division.
Paul urged the Corinthians to focus on Christ and not his messengers. The church is Christ's body where God's spirit dwells. If the church family is separated by disunity, then it ceases to work together and grow in love with Christ as the head.
Spiritual Freedom - The Corinthian believers were divided on practices not expressly forbidden in Scripture, such as eating meat that had been sacrificed to idols. Self-centeredness was the root of this division.
Paul stressed spiritual freedom, although not at the expense of other believers whose faith might be fragile. If we have freedom in an area that another Christian might consider sinful behavior, we are to be sensitive and considerate, sacrificing our freedom out of love for weaker brothers and sisters.
Holy Living - The Corinthian church had lost sight of God's holiness, which is our standard for holy living. The church could no longer effectively minister or be a witness to unbelievers outside the church.
Church Discipline - By ignoring blatant sin among its members, the Corinthian church was further contributing to division and weakness in the body. Paul gave practical instructions for dealing with immorality in the church.
Proper Worship - An overarching theme in 1 Corinthians is the need for true Christian love that will settle lawsuits and conflicts between brothers. A lack of genuine love was clearly an undercurrent in the Corinthian church, creating disorder in worship and misuse of spiritual gifts.
Paul spent a great deal of time describing the proper role of spiritual gifts and dedicated an entire chapter--1 Corinthians 13--to the definition of love.
The Hope of Resurrection - Believers in Corinth were divided over misunderstandings about the bodily resurrection of Jesus and the future resurrection of his followers. Paul wrote to clear confusion on this crucial matter which is so important to living out our faith in light of eternity.
Key Characters in 1 Corinthians
Paul and Timothy.
Key Verses
1 Corinthians 1:10
I appeal to you, brothers and sisters, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that all of you agree with one another in what you say and that there be no divisions among you, but that you be perfectly united in mind and thought. (NIV)
I appeal to you, brothers and sisters, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that all of you agree with one another in what you say and that there be no divisions among you, but that you be perfectly united in mind and thought. (NIV)
1 Corinthians 13:1-8
If I speak in the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing..
If I speak in the tongues of men or of angels, but do not have love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing..
Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It does not dishonor others, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres.
Love never fails. But where there are prophecies, they will cease; where there are tongues, they will be stilled; where there is knowledge, it will pass away. (NIV)
Outline of 1 Corinthians:
- Introduction and greeting - 1 Corinthians 1:1-9.
- Divisions over leadership - 1 Corinthians 1:10 - 4:21.
- Divisions and disorder in the body of Christ - 1 Corinthians 5:1 - 6:20.
- Instructions on marriage and divorce - 1 Corinthians 7:1-24.
- Instructions on the betrothed and widowed - 1 Corinthians 7:25-40.
- Instructions on Christian freedoms - 1 Corinthians 8:1 - 11:1.
- Divisions over corporate worship - 1 Corinthians 11:2-14:40.
- Instructions on the resurrection - 1 Corinthians 15:1-58.
- The collection, requests, closing and final greetings - 1 Corinthians 16:1-24.
2 Corinthians 4 | |
---|---|
chapter 5 → | |
A folio of Papyrus 46 (written ca. AD 200), containing 2 Corinthians 11:33–12:9. This manuscript contains almost complete parts of the whole Pauline epistles. | |
Book | Second Epistle to the Corinthians |
Category | Pauline epistles |
Christian Bible part | New Testament |
Order in the Christian part | 8 |
2 Corinthians 4 is the fourth chapter of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians in the New Testament of the ChristianBible. It is authored by Paul the Apostle and Timothy (2 Corinthians 1:1) in Macedonia in 55–56 CE.[1] Twice in this chapter (verses 1 and 16) this sentence occurs: 'Therefore, we do not lose heart'.[2]
Text[edit]
The original text was written in Koine Greek. This chapter is divided into 18 verses.
Some most ancient manuscripts containing this chapter are:
- Papyrus 46 (~AD 200)
- Codex Vaticanus (325–350)
- Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)
- Codex Alexandrinus (400–440)
- Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (~450)
- Codex Freerianus (~450; extant verses 6–7,16–17)
- Codex Claromontanus (~550)
Old Testament references[edit]
- 2 Corinthians 4:13: Psalm116:10[3]
We do not lose heart[edit]
The Greek οὐκ ἐγκακοῦμεν (ouk enkakoumen) is a Pauline phrase used twice in this chapter, derived from the verb ἐκκακέω (ekkakeó), meaning 'to faint'.[4] The word is used in three of the other Pauline epistles, and in one other New Testament text: 'the example outside the Pauline corpus is found at Luke 18:8. Jesus spoke a parable concerning the constant necessity of prayer and [teaching] that the Christians should not grow weary of prayer'.[2]
Verse 7[edit]
- But we have this treasure in earthen vessels, that the excellence of the power may be of God and not of us.[5]
- 'Treasure in earthen vessels': The Gospel, as a 'treasure' because 'it contains rich truths', is placed in 'earthen vessels,' i.e. 'ministers of the word.'[6][7] It alludes either to the 'earth', where hidden treasures are to be dug, or to 'pots and vessels made of earth', or to 'earthen pitchers', formerly to carry lights or lamps (cf. Judges 7:16: three hundred men of Gideon took empty pitchers and placed lamps within the pitchers); the latter may represent the Gospel as a 'glorious light, shining in darkness' (2 Corinthians 4:4; 2 Corinthians 4:6).[6] The Greek word ostrakinoiu signifies 'shells of fishes' which Philo the Jew compare the human body.[8] This reference may point to pearls, which are found in shells, particularly in oysters, expressing the 'frail mortal bodies of the ministers of the Gospel' (comparable to the brittle shells) as they work under persecutions, for Gospel's sake (cf. Jeremiah 32:14).[6]
See also[edit]
- Other related Bible parts: Psalm 116, Romans 8, 2 Corinthians 1, 2 Corinthians 7, 2 Corinthians 12
References[edit]
- ^MacDonald 2007, p. 1134.
- ^ abBuls, H. H., Buls' Notes on 2 Corinthians 4:1–6, accessed 30 August 2017
- ^Kirkpatrick, A. F. (1901). The Book of Psalms: with Introduction and Notes. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Book IV and V: Psalms XC-CL. Cambridge: At the University Press. p. 840. Retrieved February 28, 2019.
- ^Strong's Concordance 1573: ἐκκακέω
- ^2 Corinthians 4:7 NKJV
- ^ abcJohn Gill's Exposition of the Entire Bible, 2 Corinthians 4:7
- ^Jewish scholars also think likewise, for examples, R. Eleazar says (T. Bab. Sanhedrin, fol. 52. 2.): 'a disciple of a wise man like, .. at first .. like to a golden cup; when he has conversed with him, he is like to a silver cup; and when he has received any profit by him, he is like 'an earthen cup', which, when broken, cannot be repaired again. Also, 'the law is not confirmed but by him, who makes himself 'as an earthen vessel' (Shirhashirim Rabba, fol. 4. 2.) apud Gill, John. On 2 Corinthians 4:7.
- ^De Joseph. p. 536. apud Gill, John. On 2 Corinthians 4:7. Quote: I am (says he) very little concerned for this mortal body which is about me, and cleaves to me (ostreou diken), 'like the shell of a fish'; though it is hurt by everyone.
Bibliography[edit]
- MacDonald, Margaret (2007). '66. 2 Corinthians'. In Barton, John; Muddiman, John (eds.). The Oxford Bible Commentary (first (paperback) ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 1134–1151. ISBN978-0199277186. Retrieved February 6, 2019.
External links[edit]
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2_Corinthians_4&oldid=900357966'
Jonah and the Whale (1621) by Pieter Lastman
The Book of Jonah is a book of the Nevi'im ('Prophets') in the Hebrew Bible. It tells of a Hebrew prophet named Jonah son of Amittai who is sent by God to prophesy the destruction of Nineveh but tries to escape the divine mission.[1] Set in the reign of Jeroboam II (786–746 BC), it was probably written in the post-exilic period, some time between the late 5th to early 4th century BC.[2] The story has a long interpretive history and has become well known through popular children's stories. In Judaism, it is the Haftarah portion read during the afternoon of Yom Kippur to instill reflection on God's willingness to forgive those who repent;[3] it remains a popular story among Christians. It is also retold in the Quran.
- 2Outline
- 3Interpretive history
- 3.1Early Jewish interpretation
- 3.2Early Christian interpretation
- 6References
Narrative[edit]
Unlike the other Prophets, the book of Jonah is almost entirely narrative, with the exception of the poem in chapter 2. The actual prophetic word against Nineveh is given only in passing through the narrative. As with any good narrative, the story of Jonah has a setting, characters, a plot, and themes. It also relies heavily on such literary devices as irony.
Outline[edit]
- Jonah Flees His Mission (chapters 1–2)
- Jonah's Commission and Flight (1:1–3)
- The Endangered Sailors Cry to Their gods (1:4–6)
- Jonah's Disobedience Exposed (1:7–10)
- Jonah's punishment and Deliverance (1:11–2:1;2:10)
- His Prayer of Thanksgiving (2:2–9)
- Jonah Reluctantly fulfills His Mission (chapters 3–4)
- Jonah's Renewed Commission and Obedience (3:1–4)
- The Endangered Ninevites' Repentant Appeal to the Lord (3:4–9)
- The Ninevites' Repentance Acknowledged (3:10–4:4)
- Jonah's Deliverance and Rebuke (4:5–11)[4]
Summary[edit]
The Prophet Jonah before the Walls of Nineveh (c. 1655) drawing by Rembrandt
Jonah is the central character in the Book of Jonah, in which God commands him to go to the city of Nineveh to prophesy against it 'for their great wickedness is come up before me,'[5] but Jonah instead attempts to flee from 'the presence of the Lord' by going to Jaffa and sailing to Tarshish.[6] A huge storm arises and the sailors, realizing that it is no ordinary storm, cast lots and discover that Jonah is to blame.[7] Jonah admits this and states that if he is thrown overboard, the storm will cease.[8] The sailors refuse to do this and continue rowing, but all their efforts fail and they are eventually forced to throw Jonah overboard.[9] As a result, the storm calms and the sailors then offer sacrifices to God.[10] Jonah is miraculously saved by being swallowed by a large fish, in whose belly he spends three days and three nights.[11] While in the great fish, Jonah prays to God in his affliction and commits to thanksgiving and to paying what he has vowed.[12] God then commands the fish to vomit Jonah out.[13]
Jonah Preaching to the Ninevites (1866) by Gustave Doré
God again commands Jonah to travel to Nineveh and prophesy to its inhabitants.[14] This time he goes and enters the city, crying, 'In forty days Nineveh shall be overthrown.'[15] After Jonah has walked across Nineveh, the people of Nineveh begin to believe his word and proclaim a fast.[16] The king of Nineveh puts on sackcloth and sits in ashes, making a proclamation which decrees fasting, the wearing of sackcloth, prayer, and repentance.[17] God sees their repentant hearts and spares the city at that time.[18] The entire city is humbled and broken with the people (and even the animals)[19][20] in sackcloth and ashes.[21]
Displeased by this, Jonah refers to his earlier flight to Tarshish while asserting that, since God is merciful, it was inevitable that God would turn from the threatened calamities.[22] He then leaves the city and makes himself a shelter, waiting to see whether or not the city will be destroyed.[23] God causes a plant (in Hebrew a kikayon) to grow over Jonah's shelter to give him some shade from the sun.[24] Later, God causes a worm to bite the plant's root and it withers.[25] Jonah, now being exposed to the full force of the sun, becomes faint and pleads for God to kill him.[26]
And God said to Jonah: 'Art thou greatly angry for the Kikayon?' And he said: 'I am greatly angry, even unto death.'
And the LORD said: 'Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for which thou hast not laboured, neither madest it grow, which came up in a night, and perished in a night;
and should not I have pity on Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand, and also much cattle?'
And the LORD said: 'Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for which thou hast not laboured, neither madest it grow, which came up in a night, and perished in a night;
and should not I have pity on Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand, and also much cattle?'
— Book of Jonah, chapter 4, verses 9-11
Interpretive history[edit]
Early Jewish interpretation[edit]
The story of Jonah has numerous theological implications, and this has long been recognized. In early translations of the Hebrew Bible, Jewish translators tended to remove anthropomorphic imagery in order to prevent the reader from misunderstanding the ancient texts.[citation needed] This tendency is evidenced in both the Aramaic translations (e.g. the Targums) and the Greek translations (e.g. the Septuagint). As far as the Book of Jonah is concerned, Targum Jonah offers a good example of this:[citation needed]
Targum Jonah[edit]
In Jonah 1:6, the Masoretic Text (MT) reads, '..perhaps God will pay heed to us..' Targum Jonah translates this passage as: '..perhaps there will be mercy from the Lord upon us..' The captain's proposal is no longer an attempt to change the divine will; it is an attempt to appeal to divine mercy. Furthermore, in Jonah 3:9, the MT reads, 'Who knows, God may turn and relent [lit. repent]?' Targum Jonah translates this as, 'Whoever knows that there are sins on his conscience let him repent of them and we will be pitied before the Lord.' God does not change His mind; He shows pity.[citation needed]
Dead Sea Scrolls[edit]
Fragments of the book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS), most of which follows the Masoretic Text closely and with Mur XII reproducing a large portion of the text.[27] As for the non-canonical writings, the majority of references to biblical texts were made as appeals to authority. The Book of Jonah appears to have served less purpose in the Qumran community than other texts, as the writings make no references to it.[28]
Early Christian interpretation[edit]
New Testament[edit]
The earliest Christian interpretations of Jonah are found in the Gospel of Matthew[29] and the Gospel of Luke.[30] Both Matthew and Luke record a tradition of Jesus’ interpretation of the Book of Jonah (notably, Matthew includes two very similar traditions in chapters 12 and 16). As with most Old Testament interpretations found in the New Testament, Jesus’ interpretation is primarily typological. Jonah becomes a “type” for Jesus. Jonah spent three days in the belly of the fish; Jesus will spend three days in the grave. Here, Jesus plays on the imagery of Sheol found in Jonah's prayer. While Jonah metaphorically declared, “Out of the belly of Sheol I cried,” Jesus will literally be in the belly of Sheol. Finally, Jesus compares his generation to the people of Nineveh. Jesus fulfills his role as a type of Jonah, however his generation fails to fulfill its role as a type of Nineveh. Nineveh repented, but Jesus' generation, which has seen and heard one even greater than Jonah, fails to repent. Through his typological interpretation of the Book of Jonah, Jesus has weighed his generation and found it wanting.
Augustine of Hippo[edit]
The debate over the credibility of the miracle of Jonah is not simply a modern one. The credibility of a human being surviving in the belly of a great fish has long been questioned. In c. 409 AD, Augustine of Hippo wrote to Deogratias concerning the challenge of some to the miracle recorded in the Book of Jonah. He writes:
The last question proposed is concerning Jonah, and it is put as if it were not from Porphyry, but as being a standing subject of ridicule among the Pagans; for his words are:“In the next place, what are we to believe concerning Jonah, who is said to have been three days in a whale’s belly? The thing is utterly improbable and incredible, that a man swallowed with his clothes on should have existed in the inside of a fish. If, however, the story is figurative, be pleased to explain it. Again, what is meant by the story that a gourd sprang up above the head of Jonah after he was vomited by the fish? What was the cause of this gourd’s growth?” Questions such as these I have seen discussed by Pagans amidst loud laughter, and with great scorn.
Augustine responds that if one is to question one miracle, then one should question all miracles as well (section 31). Nevertheless, despite his apologetic, Augustine views the story of Jonah as a figure for Christ. For example, he writes: 'As, therefore, Jonah passed from the ship to the belly of the whale, so Christ passed from the cross to the sepulchre, or into the abyss of death. And as Jonah suffered this for the sake of those who were endangered by the storm, so Christ suffered for the sake of those who are tossed on the waves of this world.' Augustine credits his allegorical interpretation to the interpretation of Christ himself (Matt. 12:39,40), and he allows for other interpretations as long as they are in line with Christ's.
Medieval commentary tradition[edit]
The Ordinary Gloss, or Glossa Ordinaria, was the most important Christian commentary on the Bible in the later Middle Ages. 'The Gloss on Jonah relies almost exclusively on Jerome’s commentary on Jonah (c. 396), so its Latin often has a tone of urbane classicism. But the Gloss also chops up, compresses, and rearranges Jerome with a carnivalesque glee and scholastic directness that renders the Latin authentically medieval.'[31] 'The Ordinary Gloss on Jonah' has been translated into English and printed in a format that emulates the first printing of the Gloss.[32]
The relationship between Jonah and his fellow Jews is ambivalent, and complicated by the Gloss's tendency to read Jonah as an allegorical prefiguration of Jesus Christ. While some glosses in isolation seem crudely supersessionist (“The foreskin believes while the circumcision remains unfaithful”), the prevailing allegorical tendency is to attribute Jonah's recalcitrance to his abiding love for his own people and his insistence that God's promises to Israel not be overridden by a lenient policy toward the Ninevites. For the glossator, Jonah's pro-Israel motivations correspond to Christ's demurral in the Garden of Gethsemane (“My Father, if it be possible, let this chalice pass from me” [Matt. 26:39]) and the Gospel of Matthew's and Paul's insistence that “salvation is from the Jews” (Jn. 4:22). While in the Gloss the plot of Jonah prefigures how God will extend salvation to the nations, it also makes abundantly clear—as some medieval commentaries on the Gospel of John do not—that Jonah and Jesus are Jews, and that they make decisions of salvation-historical consequence as Jews.
Modern[edit]
NCSY director of education Dovid Bashevkin sees Jonah as a thoughtful prophet who comes to religion out of a search for theological truth and is constantly disappointed by those who come to religion to provide mere comfort in the face of adversity inherent to the human condition. 'If religion is only a blanket to provide warmth from the cold, harsh realities of life,' Bashevkin imagines Jonah asking, '[D]id concerns of theological truth and creed even matter?'[33] The lesson taught by the episode of the tree at the end of the book is that comfort is a deep human need that religion provides, but this need not obscure the role of God.
Jonah and the 'big fish'[edit]
The Hebrew text of Jonah[34] reads dag gadol (Hebrew: דג גדול), which literally means 'great fish.' The Septuagint translates this into Greek as ketos megas, (Greek: κῆτος μέγας), 'huge fish'; in Greek mythology the term was closely associated with sea monsters.[35]Saint Jerome later translated the Greek phrase as piscis grandis in his Latin Vulgate, and as cetus in Matthew.[36] At some point, cetus became synonymous with whale (cf. cetyl alcohol, which is alcohol derived from whales). In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as 'greate fyshe,' and he translated the word ketos (Greek) or cetus (Latin) in Matthew as 'whale'.[37] Tyndale's translation was later followed by the translators of the King James Version of 1611 and has enjoyed general acceptance in English translations.
In line 2:1 the book refers to the fish as dag gadol, 'great fish', in the masculine. However, in 2:2, it changes the gender to dagah, meaning female fish. The verses therefore read: 'And the lord provided a great fish (dag gadol, דָּג גּדוֹל, masculine) for Jonah, and it swallowed him, and Jonah sat in the belly of the fish (still male) for three days and nights; then, from the belly of the (dagah, דָּגָה, female) fish, Jonah began to pray.' The peculiarity of this change of gender led the later rabbis to reason that this means Jonah was comfortable in the roomy male fish, so he didn't pray, but that God then transferred him to a smaller, female fish, in which the prophet was uncomfortable, so that he prayed.[38]
Jonah and the gourd vine[edit]
The Book of Jonah closes abruptly with an epistolary warning[39] based on the emblematic trope of a fast-growing vine present in Persian narratives, and popularized in fables such as The Gourd and the Palm-tree during the Renaissance, for example by Andrea Alciato.
St. Jerome differed[40] with St. Augustine in his Latin translation of the plant known in Hebrew as קיקיון (qīqayōn), using hedera (from the Greek, meaning 'ivy') over the more common Latin cucurbita, 'gourd', from which the English word gourd (Old Frenchcoorde, couhourde) is derived. The Renaissance humanist artist Albrecht Dürer memorialized Jerome's decision to use an analogical type of Christ's 'I am the Vine, you are the branches' in his woodcut Saint Jerome in His Study.
References[edit]
- ^II Kings 14:25
- ^Mills, Watson E; Bullard, Roger Aubrey (1990). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. ISBN9780865543737.
- ^'Archived copy'. Archived from the original on 2008-11-18. Retrieved 2009-08-18.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) United Jewish Communities (UJC), 'Jonah's Path and the Message of Yom Kippur.'
- ^NIV Bible (Large Print ed.). (2007). London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd
- ^Jonah 1:2
- ^Jonah 1:3
- ^Jonah 1:4-7
- ^Jonah 1:8-12
- ^Jonah 1:13-15
- ^Jonah 1:15-16
- ^Jonah 1:17
- ^Jonah 2:1-9
- ^Jonah 2:10
- ^Jonah 3:1-2
- ^Jonah 3:2-4
- ^Jonah 3:5
- ^Jonah 3:6-9
- ^Jonah 3:10
- ^Jonah 3:8
- ^Gaines 2003, p. 25.
- ^Jonah 3:
- ^Jonah 4:1-4
- ^Jonah 4:5
- ^Jonah 4:6
- ^Jonah 4:7
- ^Jonah 4:8
- ^David L. Washburn, A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Brill, 2003), 146.
- ^James C. Vanderkam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 1994), 151
- ^Matthew 12:38–42 and 16:1–4)
- ^Luke 11:29–32
- ^Ryan McDermott, trans., 'The Ordinary Gloss on Jonah,' PMLA 128.2 (2013): 424–38.
- ^'The Ordinary Gloss on Jonah'.
- ^Bashevkin, Dovid. 'Jonah and the Varieties of Religious Motivation.'Archived 2016-10-12 at the Wayback MachineLehrhaus. 9 October 2016. 2 October 2017.
- ^Jonah 2:1
- ^See http://www.theoi.com/Ther/Ketea.html for more information regarding Greek mythology and the Ketos
- ^Matthew 12:40
- ^Matthew 12:40
- ^Bruckner 2004, p. 78.
- ^'CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Jonah'.
- ^citing Peter W. Parshall, 'Albrecht Dürer's Saint Jerome in his Study: A Philological Reference,' from The Art Bulletin 53 (September 1971), pp. 303–5 at http://www.oberlin.edu/amam/DurerSt.Jerome.htm
Bibliography[edit]
- Gaines, Janet Howe (2003). Forgiveness in a Wounded World: Jonah's Dilemma. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN1-58983-077-6.
- Bruckner, James (May 2004). NIV Application Commentary: Jonah, Nahum, Habbakkuk, Zephaniah. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. ISBN0310206375. LCCN2003022095. OCLC53223500.
External links[edit]
- An English translation of the most important medieval Christian commentary on Jonah, 'The Ordinary Gloss on Jonah,' PMLA 128.2 (2013): 424–38.
- A brief introduction to Jonah
- Jonah public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
Preceded by Obadiah | Hebrew Bible | Succeeded by Micah |
Christian Old Testament |
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Book_of_Jonah&oldid=902925136'